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Once the Brassicaceae-endophyte fungus symbiosis is formed, the host plant can obtain important benefits from an agricultural point of view, such as plant growth promotion and increase in yield and quality, increased tolerance to abiotic stresses, and direct and indirect control of plant pests and diseases. Although much remains to be known about the mechanisms involved in the Brassicaceae-endophyte fungal interaction, several cases have been described, in which the fungi need to interfere with the GSL synthesis and hydrolysis in the host plant, or even directly degrade GSLs before they are hydrolyzed to antifungal isothiocyanates.

However, this group of plants can establish beneficial interactions with endophytic fungi, which requires a reduction of defensive responses by the host plant and/or an evasion, tolerance, or suppression of plant defenses by the fungus. Brassicaceae plants are among the 30% of plant species that cannot establish optimal associations with mycorrhizal hosts (together with other plant families such as Proteaceae, Chenopodiaceae, and Caryophyllaceae), and GSLs could be involved in this evolutionary process of non-interaction. This group of plants is characterized by the synthesis and accumulation in their tissues of secondary metabolites called glucosinolates (GSLs), sulfur-containing compounds mainly involved in plant defense against pathogens and pests. Note that the activation of ETI is usually preceded by PTI activation, and the strength and duration of each event vary and are dependent on the PRRs/NLRs that are activated.īrassicaceae family includes an important group of plants of great scientific interest, e.g., the model plant Arabidopsis thaliana, and of economic interest, such as crops of the genus Brassica (Brassica oleracea, Brassica napus, Brassica rapa, etc.). Numbers indicate the corresponding signaling events in the figure on the left. Timeline on the right indicates the order and duration of each signaling event following ligand/effector perception. Following TNL activation, EP-proteins and RNLs associate with each other and activate downstream immune responses, likely via cation channel activity from the helper NLRs. The TIR domain exhibits NADase activity and produces v-cADPR, which might activate EP-proteins and the helper NLRs (RNLs). Recognition of ATR1 by the TNL RPP1 leads to oligomerization and the induced proximity of TIR domains. (C) Helper-NLR-dependent sensor NLR signaling pathway. The ZAR1 resistosome localizes to the plasma membrane (PM) and triggers calcium influx, which leads to the hypersensitive response (HR) and cell rupture.

This leads to the activation and oligomerization of ZAR1. The ZAR1/RKS1 heterodimer detects the effector AvrAC via association with uridylylated PBL2 by AvrAC. Ligand perception by PRRs activates multiple kinases, which leads to calcium influx to the cytosol, ROS production, transcriptional reprogramming, and callose deposition.

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The full list of NLRs can be found in the Supplementary Data Set S2. Number of LRR repeats in the NLRs are predicted by LRRpredictor (Martin et al., 2020a). Abbreviations for plant species: Arabidopsis thaliana, At Glycine Max, Gm Hordeum vulgare, Hv Capsicum annuum, Ca Nicotiana attenuate, Niatt Nicotiana benthamiana, Nb Nicotiana tabacum, Nitab Nicotiana tomentosiformis, Ntom Solanum lycopersicum, Sl Solanum tuberosum, St Oryza sativa, Os Zea mays, Zm Capsicum chacoense, Cch Cucumis melo, Cm Linum usitatissimum, Lu Phaseolus vulgaris, Pv Triticum monococcum, Tm Secale cereale, Sc Sorghum bicolor, Sb Triticum aestivum, Ta Solanum Americanum, Sa Solanum bulbocastanum, Sbu Solanum chacoense, Sch Solanum demissum, Sd Solanum hjertingii, Sh Solanum mochicense, Smo Solanum nigrescens, Ssn Solanum × edinense, Sxe Solanum stoloniferum, Sst Solanum venturi, Sv Capsicum baccatum, Cb Capsicum chinense, Cchi Capsicum frutescens, Cf Nicotiana sylvestris, Ns Solanum acaule, Sac Nicotiana glutinosa, Ng Aegilops tauschii, Ata Prunus cerasifera, Pc. Characterized NLRs with known effectors from (A) bacteria, (B) fungi, (C) oomycetes, (D) self-molecules, (E) parasitic plants, (F) viruses, (G) herbivores.

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